Texts:1988 Docs on techn n ed

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Various texts from 1988 on
Technology and Education

Empower: The Educational Advisor

We propose to create an interactive multimedia program designed to help people with the many diverse questions that they have about education, it should have a retail price of about $100 and should run on systems using optical storage that should start to be widely available around 1990. Within that decade, systems that can run the program will become a standard consumer appliance and we intend that the program will become the standard source of educational information and ideas for the general public.

All sorts of people have all sorts of questions about education. A great many guides and resources currently exist to help answer various types of questions that people have. These, however, aggregate into a thicket of information that only the most sophisticated can penetrate with ease. This situation, however, is ripe for change. It has become technically feasible to bring into a single multimedia resource, one that will be fun and easy to use, good responses to virtually any question about education that might reasonably be asked. Such a program should be called Empower: The Educational Advisor - the goal would be a resource that would help people solve for themselves any and all educational problems that they find themselves encountering.

If a resource of this character were done well, the market for it can soon become huge as the technology for using it will become, in one variation or another, a standard consumer appliance. Creating such a program at Teachers College makes sense: the College is the custodian of the requisite information about education and by creating the program, TC would help itself financially through a lucrative stream of royalties while it would help the public substantially improve educational actualities by bringing a better base of information to bear upon them.

To bring off such a program, we will need to develop the preeminent database of practical information about education in all its forms and organize it for interactive query with a first-class user-interface for delivery to people on CD-I and ensuing technologies. In designing the database, it would be important not to structure it as an epitome of what experts putatively know about education. Rather we should structure it with the questions that motivate people seeking educational services of diverse kinds. Tm concerned about my child’s reading. How can I help her?’ ’We want our community center to get better resources to help people learn English. What can we do?’ ’My son hopes to go to college but none of us know anything�about that and his school isn’t helping him much. How can we find out about it?’ The task would be to imagine as many concrete situations as possible and to make explicit the educational questions that arise in those situations and to work out responsible, helpful answers to those questions, presenting them to users of the program in a direct, engaging way, making full use of interactive pictures, graphics, sound, and text.

Once started, a program of this sort would generate resources more than adequate for it to be continually updated, revised, and improved. If a comprehensive, practical source of educational information and advice could be developed, the market for Empower would prove to be be very large in scope and extended over time. As a product, it would exemplify something that can be done with interactive technologies that really can not be done with print because the result would be a horribly unwieldy set of reference books. The project would be doable, but by no means trivial.

In structuring the enterprise, the College should clearly be in the position of designer and information provider, benefiting from the project through royalties. To carry the project out, the College should ally with a major corporation, say Time-Life, that would serve the function of publisher and distributor, assuming the costs of production and distribution, receiving the profits after those costs and royalties were defrayed. To start the project up, the College will need to mobilize resources to support design work on the order of $200,000, which it might do with the concept of "venture endowment," operating expense gifts that have a high probability of converting into income streams to the College far greater than the originating gifts. In addition, substantial effort would be needed to amass the appropriate content, most of which should probably be provided by the organization serving as publisher and distributor.

I think ILT should take on such a project as a major development goal — Empower is a feasible educational product and one that will make a difference. Somebody is going to try it, it had best be us, based at a top graduate school of education. There are over 40 millions kids in school, K through 12, a million or two in college, several million teachers, and many, many million parents; there are millions and millions of adults who have learning needs and endless organizations, philanthropic and self-interested, that have a stake in these adults’ being able to meet their learning needs . The compact disc makes it possible to draw together in one unified source most of the information all these people need in order to manage their educational transactions with greater, more humane effect than they currentiy can. An interactive multimedia program that genuinely responded to the educational concerns that people have, that informed those concerns and helped to empower people to act on them, would be a worthy contribution to education and a tremendous asset for the College. Let’s make the creation of it our primary goal. Robbie McClintock

1988_01_08_David_M_Cilley_IBM_project_possibilities

A Consortium for Schools of Education

Dear Dave:

I much enjoyed discussing project possibilities with you shortly before Thanksgiving. The idea of a consortium for schools of education strikes me as an excellent way, over the long-run, of extending and improving the use of computing in education. I look forward to participating in the development of it.

I expect that Teachers College would be an enthusiastic participant in such a consortium. Since we have talked, I have had the chance to discuss the idea with various colleagues and to describe it to the College computer steering committee. There is enthusiastic support for it.

As I understand the basic concept, it involves essentially a two-tiered commitment from participating schools, the first as members of the consortium itself, through which we all receive equipment at a steep discount and a common software environment that has been optimized for educational work, and the second, should a particular school be selected to do so, as a developer and tester of further program resources that would then become available to all the participating schools within the consortium. Within such a context. Teachers College would be eager to participate fully and several programs within the College are especially ready to deliver instruction to their students with networked computers and to develop the courseware needed to do that. We are prepared to make a detailed proposal along the lines that I will outline below as soon as you give us the guidelines for doing so.

Essentially, as I explained when we talked, a significant portion of the College’s students come from outside the City. It would help us strengthen our programs and make them more attractive to students to allow a larger part of work to be�done at a distance by substituting computing for commuting. Starts in this direction have been well made in several programs within the College, although primarily via lab-based computer work here, rather than by ensuring that all students in the program have can dial-up from their home or place of work. We would like to institute arrangements whereby students in these programs are equipped with PC’s, modems, and appropriate software, and are able to access courseware and supporting materials on the College’s host and to interact among themselves and with their instructors regularly and easily via E-mail.

To begin with, I would propose such an effort here be centered on four programs - the computing and education program, the Inquiry program in educational administration, the literacy program, and the pre-service teacher training program. These programs are strategic, they are largely well-staffed to make good use of intensive computing resources, and they are appropriately sized to make an impact without requiring an overwhelming scale of resources. About 35 students per year are recruited into the computing and education program, about 30 into Inquiry, about 15 into the literacy program, and about 40 into pre-service teacher training, and it takes students about 2 years to complete the programs. Thus at any particular time there would be about 240 students in the four programs.

Through the computing and education program, students from around the country come here to earn M.A. degrees. Most of these students have or expect to have substantial responsibility for computing activities in their schools or school districts. The program was one of the first in the country to offer degrees in the area. A good deal of software development has already taken place within the program, a substantial start made possible through the grant that we had from IBM University Relations, and the program maintains a computer bulletin board for its students that is heavily used. Were all the students in this program to have appropriate equipment, we could quickly make it thoroughly computer-based. This program could efficiently provide a mod\el for what could be accomplished for both the College and the consortium.

The Inquiry program is a special doctoral program for educational administrators that already makes significant use of computers in its curriculum and also stresses distance learning for a substantial element of the work students do. The students are recruited mid-career as people rising in the educational system who need to upgrade their skills and credentials. Several faculty members in the program are able to give good leadership in adapting the curriculum to a computer base and much preliminary work toward that end has been accomplished through work supported with the grant from IBM University Relations. As with the computer and education program, students in this program�are going to become people of influence with respect to how computers are used in the schools. Within the consortium, the area of the Inquiry program is one through which Teachers College can make special contribution as our educational administration program has a scale and scope that makes it a leader in the field.

Literacy education is a topic of growing concern within the College and the nation. You have talked with John Black about some of the College’s initiatives in that area. We have a small but important cohort of students working to be specialists in literacy education. Computer-based efforts in this area are important and the College expects to be raising funds from other sources to support courseware development to help create literacy programs of various sorts. The field is one that fits the model of having students dispersed in diverse locations using E-mail to communicate with themselves and the faculty and to access central instructional resources. Additionally, the staff in the literacy area is excellently equipped to produce first-rate courseware for the consortium.

Pre-service teacher preparation programs at Teachers College have been small as we have traditionally stressed advanced level qualifications in teaching rather than entry-level preparation. However, we have a compact, quality program for pre-service teachers and it would be an excellent participant in a courseware development proposal. How to integrate computer experience into the teacher training programs has been a difficult question because the curriculum does not have any free slots in it. The best way, I think, is to make computing a tool of study, not an object of study, in programs such as this. The College has people who could effectively convert an increasing portion of the subject-matter material that pre-service teachers need, as well as significant parts of their foundational work, to a computer base. The availability of good E-mail and computer conference links for the supervision of practice teaching would be invaluable as well.

Essentially, I anticipate proposing in these four areas that the programs shift to using an intensive computer base, making use of and contributing to the emerging consortium resources. I expect that we would ask IBM to supply the programs with sufficient PC’s for one to be loaned to each student, with the student able to buy it at a substantial discount at the end of the program. In addition, we would need a number of courseware development systems above what would come as standard components of the consortium package and we have also found that some funding is very important to create incentives released time, graduate assistance, etc. - encouraging instructors to take the time and career risks associated with courseware development. We would�propose then, in return, as the project unfolded, to provide to the consortium a growing repertory of courseware resources for use in graduate programs in the four areas.

Should you want more by way of a preliminary indication of interest, I should be glad to provide it and I am eager to get started on a formal proposal as soon as possible.

With good wishes for the New Year.

1988_02_02_CCT_Misperceiving_Media.txt

Remarks on "Misperceiving Media: the Mass Media and Historical Analysis"

The Center for American Culture Studies

Tuesday, February 2,1988

The 50 yard sprint.

I want to talk primarily about strategies of historical analysis and to briefly indicated how they seem to me to apply understanding the place of the mass media in recent and prospective history.

Weberian search for appropriate ideal-types for analyzing communication technologies, particularly the mass media.

The importance of addressing, and the distinction between physical address and logical address. Addresses in space and in time.

The book as the paradigmatic medium that has a logical address in both space and time.

Mass media, as a technology, are characterized by logical address in space combined with physical address in time.

The dominance of the mass media has largely been due to the inability to give electronic communication logical address in time while it has a very logical address in space. Interactive multi-media, as technologies, bring electronic communicationsinto the realm of full logical addressing where they can be activated at any time and at any place. The effect of these technologies in a decade or two will be to greatly reduce the cultural power of the mass media.

THE CENTER FOR AMERICAN CULTURE STUDIES PRESENTS

MISPERCEIVING MEDIA : THE MASS MEDIA and HISTORICAL ANALYSIS

DANIEL CZITROM(Mt. Holyoke College)

DANIEL LEAD (Seton Hall College)

T. JACKSON LEARS (Rutgers University)

ROBERT McCLINTOCK (Teachers College)

ROBERT SKLAR (New York University)

MODERATOR; GARTH JOWETT (Visiting FeUow, The Gannett Center)

Tuesday, February 2, 4:00 p.m., 603 Lewisohn Hall, Columbia University

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1988_02_15_Computers_in_the_Community_Project.txt

To: Chris Pino, ILT, Shirley Willig, Director, CCIMS

From: Robbie McClintock, Director, Box 136, x3734

Subject: Options for the Computers in the Community Project

Date: February 15,1988

As you know, the College received a $33,000 grant from Digital Equipment Corporation toward a MicroVAX for ILT's Computers in the Community project. We have until March 31 st to decide whether to accept it or not. If we do accept it, we must contribute an additional $33,000 toward the equipment to match their grant.

ILT does not have sufficient equipment funds to contribute more than a nominal amount toward the College's share. Dr. Seth Chaiklin, the organizer for ILT of Computers in the Community, has been trying to raise the requisite funds from other external sources, but we are unlikely to come up with a firm commitment of those funds within the deadline, partly because the time is short and partly because funders of community-based projects seem to prefer that their contributions go toward the human costs of the project rather than the hardwarecosts.

I do not want this initiative choked off because of our inability to come up with $30,000 for the equipment. The project initiates a long-term line of development that we should pursue for several reasons:

it will generate substantial human and community benefits;

it will dovetail well with initiatives being taken through the Literacy Center, the Teacher Education Program, the Center for Health Promotion, and through lUME;

it will substantially help build the College's capacity to extend its reach through bulletin boards and wide-area networking; and

it should be an area for which we can successfully raise substantial resources over the long-run and in doing so further two of the College's priorities ~ urban and minority education and mediating the impact of technology.

Consequently, I want to find a way to meet the equipment needs of this project, should Seth be unable to find a funder for the MicroVAX hardware.

Esseantially I see four possible alternative ways of providing those hardware needs. �Since the College is about to purchase a very large VAX, it may be possible to fold this grant from DEC into that purchase, so that we locate the functionality the project requires on the large VAX with the College's contribution toward the grant coming through that purchase and DEC'S $33,000 grant being deducted from the cost of the whole system. Primer should be able to tell us whether that is possible.

Since the College is also soon likely to purchase a small IBM 9370, it may make sense to reject the DEC grant and approach IBM for support on the project. There may be good policy reasons for not having such a network anchored on the College's principal administrative computing resource, namely the new VAX, and it may be more productive in the long-run to use IBM technology for it. It makes sense to link the networking of communitybased groups with some of our on-site minority-group computer-training projects. We will need in the not-so-distant future to upgrade our computer labs. Putting together a combined proposal on this to IBM would stand a reasonalDle chance of success, I would hope. What would we need to request in order to anchor the Computers in the Community network on the 9370? Steve Epstein should be able to help us get the requisite information on this.

I am under the impression that there are rather good public-domain bulletin-board programs that run under UNIX, and if we follow through with the idea of converting the VAX 750 to UNIX, we may be able to anchor the Computers in the Community network on the 750 at a very low cost. What would be needed in order to follow through with this option?

We are intending to grow the Computers in the Community network rather like seeding a crystallization process, starting with just a few locations and trying to get the right mix of materials on the bulletin board to get people at the first sites really engaged in interacting with one another through it. For this first phase, we really only need a relatively low capacity system, provided it is relatively easy to use. What would be the pros and cons of simply starting up with very simple equipment, as with the Computing and Education Program bulletin board, and then, when usage pushes us to it, expanding capacity and moving to more sophisticated technologies?

These four questions seem to me to define the technical alternatives, at least as they stand in the immediate future. I would appreciate receiving as much informed input on these matters as you can give me, as soon as possible, as I soon must make a decision about how to respond to DEC'S grant. A fifth matter does not pertain to the alternatives that ILT might use in mobilizing technical resources for Computers in the Community; rather it concerns the general academic context in which we will be locating this project.

What is the present and potential demand for bulletin board type facilities through the College? I would take such facilities to consist minimally of the following: bulletin board users should be able to call a specific phone number, an 800 number if callers are likely to be outside of the local dialing area, and as a result connect directly to a specific bulletin board at either 300 or 1200 baud; after a very simple log-on procedure, users should be able to get specific answers to specific questions easily and have sufficient on-line help so that inexperienced new users will be neither frustrated nor intimidated; users should be able to browse, study, or download extended resources pertinent to each bulletin board; they should be able to communicate with other users through an electronic mail facility and to communicate with others logged in simultaneously over a chatting facility; and finally, wherever appropriate, through a simple connect facility, users should be able to make the bulletin board serve as an entry-way to the full range of computer resources that the College may have to offer.

We should know how many groups and programs in the College would like, now or in the near future, to use such bulletin board capacities. Such a facility has been started in the Computing and Education Program and students have been most enthusiastic about it. A number of other groups spring to mind as candidates for such facilities: the Library, the Office of Student Activities, the Admissions Office, the Inquiry Program, the AEGIS Program, the Nurse Executive Program, the Literacy Center, TESOL, ERIC, the Office of Teacher Education, the Placement Office, the Word Processing Center, the Center for Health Promotion, the grants iniformation group in the Dean's Office, and so on. It would be very useful in developing strong facilities development proposals for potential funders to have a good survey of needs and possibilities in this area. I realize that we cannot do that within the time constraint set by DEC'S grant deadline, but I would appreciate now any thoughts you would have about how we should go about mobilizing this information, as I expect that we will need over the coming years to generate a multiplicity of proposals for such facilities. I'm trying, in a first cut at getting such information, circulating a query to the heads of various programs and offices that might be interested in bulletin boards. A copy of the query is attached. Thanks,

cc: Nathan Dickmeyer, VP for Finance and Administration; Seth Chaiklin, Computers in the Community

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1988_02_15_Electronic_Bulletin_Board_capacities.txt

Electronic Bulletin Board Capacities and Interests

To:

John Allegrante, Director, Center for Health Promotion

Bill Baldwin, Associate Dean for Student Services

John Black, the Literacy Center

John Buckey, Director, Placement Office

John Fanselow, the TESOL Program

Erwin Flaxman, Director, ERIC-CUE

Tom Foote, the Inquiry Program

Jane Franck, Director, Milbank Memorial Library

Chuck Harrington, Director, lUME

Roland Hence, Director, Admissions Office

Joann Jacullo-Noto, Director, Office of Teacher Education

Linn Marks, Research Associate, Dean's Office

Jeffrey McDowell, Coordinator, Student Activities Office

Jack Meziro, the AEGIS Program

Pat Moccia, Nursing Education

Rocky Schwarz, Supervisor, Word Processing Center

From: Robbie McClintock, Director, Box 136, x3734

Subject: Electronic Bulletin Board Capacities and Interests

Date; February 15,1988

How can technological innovations help improve the College's competitive position? In response to this question, the following reasoning seems to make some sense. The College delivers high-cost instruction, competing with low-cost imitators, in a demographically limited market. We improve our competitive position in three ways: by lowering our costs, by differentiating our programs from those of our imitators, and by expanding the reach of our markets.

• Astute use of technology can help us lower the cost of instruction significantly in courses where the material is such that it can be imparted well routinely through computer-based training.

• Pioneering development that integrates artificial intelligence, simulations, and hypermedia in revitalizing the intellectual experience that students can have in engaging diverse parts of the curriculum can differentiate our programs from those of our imitators.

• Effective use of telecommunications can break the bind of our geographic location and the effective combination of classes distributed by satellite networks and out-of-class work using interactive media and bulletin boards can make such distance-learning arrangements into quality pedagogical settings.

In order to act on such reasoning, we need to find out what sorts of resources would be useful in diverse aspects of our programs. This is the first of a series of queries about various technological functionalities that might be useful in various programs and offices, this one concerning bulletin boards. I start with this not because it is necessarily the most important, but because ILT needs to make a decision soon with respect to some bulletin board equipment, and knowing more about the present and potential demand for bulletin board type facilities through the College would be helpful in making that decision.

What do I mean by bulletin board facilities? I would take such facilities to consist ■2t40^ minimally of the following: bulletin board users should be able to call a specific phone / number, an 800 number if callers are likely to be outside of the local dialing area, and / as a result connect directly to a specific bulletin board at either 300 or 1200 SaOdfafter a very simple log-on procedure, users should be able to get specific answers to specific questions easily and have sufficient on-line help so that inexperienced new users will be neither frustrated nor intimidated; users should be able to browse, study, or download extended resources pertinent to each bulletin board; they should be able to upload to the bulletin board, if appropriate, extended materials such as manuscripts; they should be able to communicate with other users through an electronic mail facility and to communicate with others logged in simultaneously over a chatting facility; and finally, wherever appropriate, through a simple connect facility, users should be able to make the bulletin board serve as an entry-way to the full range of computer resources that the College may have to offer.

ILT would like to know how many groups and programs in the College would like, now or in the near future, to use such bulletin board capacities to facilitate their activities. Such a facility has been started in the Computing and Education Program and students have been most enthusiastic about it. Such a bulletin board can run on a fairly simple computer, provided it has a good sized hard disk. Maintaining it is not trying, although somepne needs to think through the purposes of the bulletin board and see that the materials on it are appropriate for those purposes and that the interactions engendered by it get the appropriate follow-through. More sophisticated systems can provide resources for delivering a entire program curriculum or greatly facilitate the supervision of independent study or practice. Bulletin boards can also be used in combination with distance-learning classes delivered virtually anywhere by satellite networks.

I'm attachirig a copy of an article describing Learning Link, which gives a fuller understanding of the sort of bulletin board facility in question. It would be very helpful to our planning if you would indicate whether such capacities might be of use in your area. If they are of interest, it would help us if you would briefly describe what sorts of purposes you would like to achieve through a bulletin board and some guess at the number of users it might attract. Your responses will help us greatly in planning.

Thanks very much.

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/home/robbie/Documents/Adds_12_01_2024/Working/1988_03_22_CCT_Creativity_and_visualization.txt

Annenberg project on Creativity and Visuaiization

To: John Black

From: Robbie McClintock, Box 136, x3734

Subject: Annenberg project on Creativity and Visuaiization

Date: March 22,1988

Preliminary Draft

Here are thoughts on a possible Annenberg proposal. As I recalled from our conversation, you may have had a demonstration project in mind, whereas this Is coming out more as a course development project. These notes are very preliminary In the guise set forth here, i think we are now situated where we can bring off a rather ambitious proposal and I think the topic is one that merits an ambitious effort.

Creativity and Visualization. Intellectual innovation in modern history has been closely associated with changes in the capacity to visualize and represent things. For example, the Renaissance is linked to the introduction of perspectival representation (Edgerton, 1975) The rise of early modern science depended in part on the abifity to reproduce and disseminate conceptual drawings representing new theoretical perspectives accurately, and it was greatly stimulated by the extensions of the power to visualize the phenomenal world engendered by telescope and microscope. (Eisenstein, 1979, vol 2; Sydenham, 1979)) The break with the traditional medicine of Galen coincided with the development of much more realistic anatomical drawings. The age of exploration is also the start of modern cartography.(Bagrow, 1985; Eisenstein. 1979; Robinson & Petchenik, 1976) In premodern culture, pictures aided memory; in modern culture they come to be ways of significantly representing the phenomenal world to the thinking mind. (Yates. 1966)

This close link between visualization and creative thinking has continued through the past 500 years. (Ivins. 1969) Examples abound. One of the most important features of the French Encyclopedia was its excellent plates, particularly those illustrating the technology of the time. The development of probabalistic and statistical reasoning has been closely associated with discoveries in the techniques of graphical representation. (Benin, 1983; Stigler, 1986; Tufte, 1983) In field after field, science and technology have prospered where new techniques and instruments allowing new pheriqmena to be visualized in new ways have been developed. Where would medicine be without its vast array of medical imaging techniques? VVhere would astronomy be without imaging? Where, even, would chemistry, in which taste, smell, and touch have been traditionally important, be without spectroscopy? For that matter, would acoustics be much of a science without the oscilloscope and other means of visualizing the actions of sound waves?(Sydenham, 1979; Darius, 1984; Ackerman, 1984)

Yet, despite the evident linkage between the progress of culture and the power to visualize phenomena, and despite a rich literature that documents it, without perhpas explaining it, visualization has not been used well as a tool In advanced educaticyi. In the eighteenth century the well-educated person studied drawing, not as a prelude to an artistic career, but in recognition that a person needed not only to speak, read, and write well, but also to represent the world visually in effective sketch, much p court reporters’now do where TV cameras are not permitted. The practice of including a visual training in general education has died out. Only in art history and art appreciation courses does the educational system now recognize that the development of visual powers is important for anyone except the prospective artist, and these courses primarily stress the history of taste and styles. We propose to, pevetop an experiemental course on visual thinking in modern Western history that win be an interdisciplinary, general education offering on the undergraduate level, one desigried to help students master their powers of visualization as resources in creative Uiinking and problem solving.

In developing the materials for this course, we will concentrate on four interrelated topics: changes in the techniques used to represent visualized phenomena (e.g., introduction of perspective, representation through graphs, use of cutaway drawings representing the internal appearance of things, etc.); changes in the iristruments available for making phenomena visualizable . (e.g., telescope, microscope, photography in its various forms. X-ray’s, etc.); changes in the conceptually powerful visualized images that characterize the leading edge of culture (e.g., the kaleidoscope of fashion and style; the escarpment of a clock in the late-eighteenth century, the steam turbine and electric generator in the late-nineteenth, the ^11 earth looking back from outer space in the late-twentieth) ; changes in the cognitive capacity to visualize phenomena (e.g., greater capacity to judge intuitively the relative motion of large, rapidly moving bodies elicited by the pervasive use of cars, etc.).

We propose to make our heritage of visual thinking accessible in a nevv way, fully using the capacity of multi-media workstations, and computer aided design systems, all served by a digitally stored and managed database of unprecedented scope. The project will be managed through the Institute for Learning Technologies at Teachers College, Columbia University, and a number of other institutions will collaborate, among them, the Smithsonian Institution, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, WNET/Channel 13, the Museum of Modern Art, the Museum of Broadcasting, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [These are of course tentative ~ I am quite sure of being able to arrange for the collaboration of the Smithsonian and reasonably sure of the Met; I think Jay Iselin could bring in WNET, MOMA, and the Museurn of Broadcasting; Ben Davis from Project Athena wants to have a continuing relationship here and this project would be right up his ally....]

I would propose going after resources to develop a two term course: the first concerning Visualization and Thought In Western Culture, 1400-1900, and the second Visualization and Thought In Western Culture, 1900-2000. The course should draw together what is known about visual cognition from psychology and related disciplines; what can be learned about visualization and thinking from the history of science, technology, art, architecture, cartography, and the like; and what is evident about the topic from the creative design work of the 20th century in the visual media.

Ackermann, 1984;

Robert J. Ackermann. Data, Instruments, and Theory: A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Science. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Bagrow, 1985

Leo Bagrow. History of Cartography. Second edition, revised and enlarged by R.A. Skelton. Chicago: Precedent Publishing, Inc., 1985.

Bertin, 1983

Jacques Bertin. Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps. William J. Berg, trans. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1983. Darius, 1984

Darius. 1984

Jon Darius. Beyond Vision: One Hundred Historic Scientific Photographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Edgerton, 1975

Samuel Y. Edgerton. Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective. New York: Harper TorchboOks, 1975.

Eisenstein, 1979

Elizabeth L. Eisenstein. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe. 2 vols., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Ivins, 1969

William M. Ivins, Jr. Prints and Visual Communication. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1969.

Robinson & Petchenik, 1976

Arthur H. Robinson and Barbara Bartz Petchenik. The Nature of Maps: Essays toward Understanding Maps and Mapping. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976.

Stigler, 1986

Stephen M. Stigler. The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

Sydenham, 1979

P.H. Sydenham. Measuring instruments: Tools of Knowledge and Control. New York: Peter Peregrinus, Ltd., 1979.

Tufte, 1983

Edward R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1983.

Yates, 1966

Frances A. Yates. The Art of Memory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1966.